8 Types

8.1 General

The types of the C# language are divided into two main categories: reference types and value types. Both value types and reference types may be generic types, which take one or more type parameters. Type parameters can designate both value types and reference types.

type
    : reference_type
    | value_type
    | type_parameter
    | pointer_type     // unsafe code support
    ;

pointer_type (§23.3) is available only in unsafe code (§23).

Value types differ from reference types in that variables of the value types directly contain their data, whereas variables of the reference types store references to their data, the latter being known as objects. With reference types, it is possible for two variables to reference the same object, and thus possible for operations on one variable to affect the object referenced by the other variable. With value types, the variables each have their own copy of the data, and it is not possible for operations on one to affect the other.

Note: When a variable is a reference or output parameter, it does not have its own storage but references the storage of another variable. In this case, the ref or out variable is effectively an alias for another variable and not a distinct variable. end note

C#’s type system is unified such that a value of any type can be treated as an object. Every type in C# directly or indirectly derives from the object class type, and object is the ultimate base class of all types. Values of reference types are treated as objects simply by viewing the values as type object. Values of value types are treated as objects by performing boxing and unboxing operations (§8.3.13).

For convenience, throughout this specification, some library type names are written without using their full name qualification. Refer to §C.5 for more information.

8.2 Reference types

8.2.1 General

A reference type is a class type, an interface type, an array type, a delegate type, or the dynamic type. For each non-nullable reference type, there is a corresponding nullable reference type noted by appending the ? to the type name.

reference_type
    : non_nullable_reference_type
    | nullable_reference_type
    ;

non_nullable_reference_type
    : class_type
    | interface_type
    | array_type
    | delegate_type
    | 'dynamic'
    ;

class_type
    : type_name
    | 'object'
    | 'string'
    ;

interface_type
    : type_name
    ;

array_type
    : non_array_type rank_specifier+
    ;

non_array_type
    : value_type
    | class_type
    | interface_type
    | delegate_type
    | 'dynamic'
    | type_parameter
    | pointer_type      // unsafe code support
    ;

rank_specifier
    : '[' ','* ']'
    ;

delegate_type
    : type_name
    ;

nullable_reference_type
    : non_nullable_reference_type '?'
    ;

pointer_type is available only in unsafe code (§23.3). nullable_reference_type is discussed further in §8.9.

A reference type value is a reference to an instance of the type, the latter known as an object. The special value null is compatible with all reference types and indicates the absence of an instance.

8.2.2 Class types

A class type defines a data structure that contains data members (constants and fields), function members (methods, properties, events, indexers, operators, instance constructors, finalizers, and static constructors), and nested types. Class types support inheritance, a mechanism whereby derived classes can extend and specialize base classes. Instances of class types are created using object_creation_expressions (§12.8.17.2).

Class types are described in §15.

Certain predefined class types have special meaning in the C# language, as described in the table below.

Class type	Description
System.Object	The ultimate base class of all other types. See §8.2.3.
System.String	The string type of the C# language. See §8.2.5.
System.ValueType	The base class of all value types. See §8.3.2.
System.Enum	The base class of all enum types. See §19.5.
System.Array	The base class of all array types. See §17.2.2.
System.Delegate	The base class of all delegate types. See §20.1.
System.Exception	The base class of all exception types. See §21.3.

8.2.3 The object type

The object class type is the ultimate base class of all other types. Every type in C# directly or indirectly derives from the object class type.

The keyword object is simply an alias for the predefined class System.Object.

8.2.4 The dynamic type

The dynamic type, like object, can reference any object. When operations are applied to expressions of type dynamic, their resolution is deferred until the program is run. Thus, if the operation cannot legitimately be applied to the referenced object, no error is given during compilation. Instead, an exception will be thrown when resolution of the operation fails at run-time.

The dynamic type is further described in §8.7, and dynamic binding in §12.3.1.

8.2.5 The string type

The string type is a sealed class type that inherits directly from object. Instances of the string class represent Unicode character strings.

Values of the string type can be written as string literals (§6.4.5.6).

The keyword string is simply an alias for the predefined class System.String.

8.2.6 Interface types

An interface defines a contract. A class or struct that implements an interface shall adhere to its contract. An interface may inherit from multiple base interfaces, and a class or struct may implement multiple interfaces.

Interface types are described in §18.

8.2.7 Array types

An array is a data structure that contains zero or more variables, which are accessed through computed indices. The variables contained in an array, also called the elements of the array, are all of the same type, and this type is called the element type of the array.

Array types are described in §17.

8.2.8 Delegate types

A delegate is a data structure that refers to one or more methods. For instance methods, it also refers to their corresponding object instances.

Note: The closest equivalent of a delegate in C or C++ is a function pointer, but whereas a function pointer can only reference static functions, a delegate can reference both static and instance methods. In the latter case, the delegate stores not only a reference to the method’s entry point, but also a reference to the object instance on which to invoke the method. end note

Delegate types are described in §20.

8.3 Value types

8.3.1 General

A value type is either a struct type or an enumeration type. C# provides a set of predefined struct types called the simple types. The simple types are identified through keywords.

value_type
    : non_nullable_value_type
    | nullable_value_type
    ;

non_nullable_value_type
    : struct_type
    | enum_type
    ;

struct_type
    : type_name
    | simple_type
    | tuple_type
    ;

simple_type
    : numeric_type
    | 'bool'
    ;

numeric_type
    : integral_type
    | floating_point_type
    | 'decimal'
    ;

integral_type
    : 'sbyte'
    | 'byte'
    | 'short'
    | 'ushort'
    | 'int'
    | 'uint'
    | 'long'
    | 'ulong'
    | 'char'
    ;

floating_point_type
    : 'float'
    | 'double'
    ;

tuple_type
    : '(' tuple_type_element (',' tuple_type_element)+ ')'
    ;
    
tuple_type_element
    : type identifier?
    ;
    
enum_type
    : type_name
    ;

nullable_value_type
    : non_nullable_value_type '?'
    ;

Unlike a variable of a reference type, a variable of a value type can contain the value null only if the value type is a nullable value type (§8.3.12). For every non-nullable value type there is a corresponding nullable value type denoting the same set of values plus the value null.

Assignment to a variable of a value type creates a copy of the value being assigned. This differs from assignment to a variable of a reference type, which copies the reference but not the object identified by the reference.

8.3.2 The System.ValueType type

All value types implicitly inherit from the class System.ValueType, which, in turn, inherits from class object. It is not possible for any type to derive from a value type, and value types are thus implicitly sealed (§15.2.2.3).

Note that System.ValueType is not itself a value_type. Rather, it is a class_type from which all value_types are automatically derived.

8.3.3 Default constructors

All value types implicitly declare a public parameterless instance constructor called the default constructor. The default constructor returns a zero-initialized instance known as the default value for the value type:

• For all simple_types, the default value is the value produced by a bit pattern of all zeros:
  • For sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, and ulong, the default value is 0.
  • For char, the default value is '\x0000'.
  • For float, the default value is 0.0f.
  • For double, the default value is 0.0d.
  • For decimal, the default value is 0m (that is, value zero with scale 0).
  • For bool, the default value is false.
  • For an enum_type E, the default value is 0, converted to the type E.
• For a struct_type, the default value is the value produced by setting all value type fields to their default value and all reference type fields to null.
• For a nullable_value_type the default value is an instance for which the HasValue property is false. The default value is also known as the null value of the nullable value type. Attempting to read the Value property of such a value causes an exception of type System.InvalidOperationException to be thrown (§8.3.12).

Like any other instance constructor, the default constructor of a value type is invoked using the new operator.

Note: For efficiency reasons, this requirement is not intended to actually have the implementation generate a constructor call. For value types, the default value expression (§12.8.21) produces the same result as using the default constructor. end note

Example: In the code below, variables i, j and k are all initialized to zero.

class A
{
    void F()
    {
        int i = 0;
        int j = new int();
        int k = default(int);
    }
}

end example

Because every value type implicitly has a public parameterless instance constructor, it is not possible for a struct type to contain an explicit declaration of a parameterless constructor. A struct type is however permitted to declare parameterized instance constructors (§16.4.9).

8.3.4 Struct types

A struct type is a value type that can declare constants, fields, methods, properties, events, indexers, operators, instance constructors, static constructors, and nested types. The declaration of struct types is described in §16.

8.3.5 Simple types

C# provides a set of predefined struct types called the simple types. The simple types are identified through keywords, but these keywords are simply aliases for predefined struct types in the System namespace, as described in the table below.

Keyword	Aliased type
sbyte	System.SByte
byte	System.Byte
short	System.Int16
ushort	System.UInt16
int	System.Int32
uint	System.UInt32
long	System.Int64
ulong	System.UInt64
char	System.Char
float	System.Single
double	System.Double
bool	System.Boolean
decimal	System.Decimal

Because a simple type aliases a struct type, every simple type has members.

Example: int has the members declared in System.Int32 and the members inherited from System.Object, and the following statements are permitted:

int i = int.MaxValue;      // System.Int32.MaxValue constant
string s = i.ToString();   // System.Int32.ToString() instance method
string t = 123.ToString(); // System.Int32.ToString() instance method

end example

Note: The simple types differ from other struct types in that they permit certain additional operations:

• Most simple types permit values to be created by writing literals (§6.4.5), although C# makes no provision for literals of struct types in general. Example: 123 is a literal of type int and 'a' is a literal of type char. end example
• When the operands of an expression are all simple type constants, it is possible for the compiler to evaluate the expression at compile-time. Such an expression is known as a constant_expression (§12.23). Expressions involving operators defined by other struct types are not considered to be constant expressions
• Through const declarations, it is possible to declare constants of the simple types (§15.4). It is not possible to have constants of other struct types, but a similar effect is provided by static readonly fields.
• Conversions involving simple types can participate in evaluation of conversion operators defined by other struct types, but a user-defined conversion operator can never participate in evaluation of another user-defined conversion operator (§10.5.3).

end note.

8.3.6 Integral types

C# supports nine integral types: sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, and char. The integral types have the following sizes and ranges of values:

• The sbyte type represents signed 8-bit integers with values from -128 to 127, inclusive.
• The byte type represents unsigned 8-bit integers with values from 0 to 255, inclusive.
• The short type represents signed 16-bit integers with values from -32768 to 32767, inclusive.
• The ushort type represents unsigned 16-bit integers with values from 0 to 65535, inclusive.
• The int type represents signed 32-bit integers with values from -2147483648 to 2147483647, inclusive.
• The uint type represents unsigned 32-bit integers with values from 0 to 4294967295, inclusive.
• The long type represents signed 64-bit integers with values from -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807, inclusive.
• The ulong type represents unsigned 64-bit integers with values from 0 to 18446744073709551615, inclusive.
• The char type represents unsigned 16-bit integers with values from 0 to 65535, inclusive. The set of possible values for the char type corresponds to the Unicode character set.

  Note: Although char has the same representation as ushort, not all operations permitted on one type are permitted on the other. end note

All signed integral types are represented using two’s complement format.

The integral_type unary and binary operators always operate with signed 32-bit precision, unsigned 32-bit precision, signed 64-bit precision, or unsigned 64-bit precision, as detailed in §12.4.7.

The char type is classified as an integral type, but it differs from the other integral types in two ways:

• There are no predefined implicit conversions from other types to the char type. In particular, even though the byte and ushort types have ranges of values that are fully representable using the char type, implicit conversions from sbyte, byte, or ushort to char do not exist.
• Constants of the char type shall be written as character_literals or as integer_literals in combination with a cast to type char.

Example: (char)10 is the same as '\x000A'. end example

The checked and unchecked operators and statements are used to control overflow checking for integral-type arithmetic operations and conversions (§12.8.20). In a checked context, an overflow produces a compile-time error or causes a System.OverflowException to be thrown. In an unchecked context, overflows are ignored and any high-order bits that do not fit in the destination type are discarded.

8.3.7 Floating-point types

C# supports two floating-point types: float and double. The float and double types are represented using the 32-bit single-precision and 64-bit double-precision IEC 60559 formats, which provide the following sets of values:

• Positive zero and negative zero. In most situations, positive zero and negative zero behave identically as the simple value zero, but certain operations distinguish between the two (§12.10.3).
• Positive infinity and negative infinity. Infinities are produced by such operations as dividing a non-zero number by zero.

  Example: 1.0 / 0.0 yields positive infinity, and –1.0 / 0.0 yields negative infinity. end example

• The Not-a-Number value, often abbreviated NaN. NaNs are produced by invalid floating-point operations, such as dividing zero by zero.
• The finite set of non-zero values of the form s × m × 2ᵉ, where s is 1 or −1, and m and e are determined by the particular floating-point type: For float, 0 < m < 2²⁴ and −149 ≤ e ≤ 104, and for double, 0 < m < 2⁵³ and −1075 ≤ e ≤ 970. Denormalized floating-point numbers are considered valid non-zero values. C# neither requires nor forbids that a conforming implementation support denormalized floating-point numbers.

The float type can represent values ranging from approximately 1.5 × 10⁻⁴⁵ to 3.4 × 10³⁸ with a precision of 7 digits.

The double type can represent values ranging from approximately 5.0 × 10⁻³²⁴ to 1.7 × 10³⁰⁸ with a precision of 15-16 digits.

If either operand of a binary operator is a floating-point type then standard numeric promotions are applied, as detailed in §12.4.7, and the operation is performed with float or double precision.

The floating-point operators, including the assignment operators, never produce exceptions. Instead, in exceptional situations, floating-point operations produce zero, infinity, or NaN, as described below:

• The result of a floating-point operation is rounded to the nearest representable value in the destination format.
• If the magnitude of the result of a floating-point operation is too small for the destination format, the result of the operation becomes positive zero or negative zero.
• If the magnitude of the result of a floating-point operation is too large for the destination format, the result of the operation becomes positive infinity or negative infinity.
• If a floating-point operation is invalid, the result of the operation becomes NaN.
• If one or both operands of a floating-point operation is NaN, the result of the operation becomes NaN.

Floating-point operations may be performed with higher precision than the result type of the operation. To force a value of a floating-point type to the exact precision of its type, an explicit cast (§12.9.7) can be used.

Example: Some hardware architectures support an “extended” or “long double” floating-point type with greater range and precision than the double type, and implicitly perform all floating-point operations using this higher precision type. Only at excessive cost in performance can such hardware architectures be made to perform floating-point operations with less precision, and rather than require an implementation to forfeit both performance and precision, C# allows a higher precision type to be used for all floating-point operations. Other than delivering more precise results, this rarely has any measurable effects. However, in expressions of the form x * y / z, where the multiplication produces a result that is outside the double range, but the subsequent division brings the temporary result back into the double range, the fact that the expression is evaluated in a higher range format can cause a finite result to be produced instead of an infinity. end example

8.3.8 The Decimal type

The decimal type is a 128-bit data type suitable for financial and monetary calculations. The decimal type can represent values including those in the range at least -7.9 × 10⁻²⁸ to 7.9 × 10²⁸, with at least 28-digit precision.

The finite set of values of type decimal are of the form (–1)ᵛ × c × 10⁻ᵉ, where the sign v is 0 or 1, the coefficient c is given by 0 ≤ c < Cmax, and the scale e is such that Emin ≤ e ≤ Emax, where Cmax is at least 1 × 10²⁸, Emin ≤ 0, and Emax ≥ 28. The decimal type does not necessarily support signed zeros, infinities, or NaN’s.

A decimal is represented as an integer scaled by a power of ten. For decimals with an absolute value less than 1.0m, the value is exact to at least the 28th decimal place. For decimals with an absolute value greater than or equal to 1.0m, the value is exact to at least 28 digits. Contrary to the float and double data types, decimal fractional numbers such as 0.1 can be represented exactly in the decimal representation. In the float and double representations, such numbers often have non-terminating binary expansions, making those representations more prone to round-off errors.

If either operand of a binary operator is of decimal type then standard numeric promotions are applied, as detailed in §12.4.7, and the operation is performed with double precision.

The result of an operation on values of type decimal is that which would result from calculating an exact result (preserving scale, as defined for each operator) and then rounding to fit the representation. Results are rounded to the nearest representable value, and, when a result is equally close to two representable values, to the value that has an even number in the least significant digit position (this is known as “banker’s rounding”). That is, results are exact to at least the 28th decimal place. Note that rounding may produce a zero value from a non-zero value.

If a decimal arithmetic operation produces a result whose magnitude is too large for the decimal format, a System.OverflowException is thrown.

The decimal type has greater precision but may have a smaller range than the floating-point types. Thus, conversions from the floating-point types to decimal might produce overflow exceptions, and conversions from decimal to the floating-point types might cause loss of precision or overflow exceptions. For these reasons, no implicit conversions exist between the floating-point types and decimal, and without explicit casts, a compile-time error occurs when floating-point and decimal operands are directly mixed in the same expression.

8.3.9 The Bool type

The bool type represents Boolean logical quantities. The possible values of type bool are true and false. The representation of false is described in §8.3.3. Although the representation of true is unspecified, it shall be different from that of false.

No standard conversions exist between bool and other value types. In particular, the bool type is distinct and separate from the integral types, a bool value cannot be used in place of an integral value, and vice versa.

Note: In the C and C++ languages, a zero integral or floating-point value, or a null pointer can be converted to the Boolean value false, and a non-zero integral or floating-point value, or a non-null pointer can be converted to the Boolean value true. In C#, such conversions are accomplished by explicitly comparing an integral or floating-point value to zero, or by explicitly comparing an object reference to null. end note

8.3.10 Enumeration types

An enumeration type is a distinct type with named constants. Every enumeration type has an underlying type, which shall be byte, sbyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long or ulong. The set of values of the enumeration type is the same as the set of values of the underlying type. Values of the enumeration type are not restricted to the values of the named constants. Enumeration types are defined through enumeration declarations (§19.2).

8.3.11 Tuple types

A tuple type represents an ordered, fixed-length sequence of values with optional names and individual types. The number of elements in a tuple type is referred to as its arity. A tuple type is written (T1 I1, ..., Tn In) with n ≥ 2, where the identifiers I1...In are optional tuple element names.

This syntax is shorthand for a type constructed with the types T1...Tn from System.ValueTuple<...>, which shall be a set of generic struct types capable of directly expressing tuple types of any arity between two and seven inclusive. There does not need to exist a System.ValueTuple<...> declaration that directly matches the arity of any tuple type with a corresponding number of type parameters. Instead, tuples with an arity greater than seven are represented with a generic struct type System.ValueTuple<T1, ..., T7, TRest> that in addition to tuple elements has a Rest field containing a nested value of the remaining elements, using another System.ValueTuple<...> type. Such nesting may be observable in various ways, e.g. via the presence of a Rest field. Where only a single additional field is required, the generic struct type System.ValueTuple<T1> is used; this type is not considered a tuple type in itself. Where more than seven additional fields are required, System.ValueTuple<T1, ..., T7, TRest> is used recursively.

Element names within a tuple type shall be distinct. A tuple element name of the form ItemX, where X is any sequence of non-0-initiated decimal digits that could represent the position of a tuple element, is only permitted at the position denoted by X.

The optional element names are not represented in the ValueTuple<...> types, and are not stored in the runtime representation of a tuple value. Identity conversions (§10.2.2) exist between tuples with identity-convertible sequences of element types.

The new operator §12.8.17.2 cannot be applied with the tuple type syntax new (T1, ..., Tn). Tuple values can be created from tuple expressions (§12.8.6), or by applying the new operator directly to a type constructed from ValueTuple<...>.

Tuple elements are public fields with the names Item1, Item2, etc., and can be accessed via a member access on a tuple value (§12.8.7. Additionally, if the tuple type has a name for a given element, that name can be used to access the element in question.

Note: Even when large tuples are represented with nested System.ValueTuple<...> values, each tuple element can still be accessed directly with the Item... name corresponding to its position. end note

Example: Given the following examples:

(int, string) pair1 = (1, "One");
(int, string word) pair2 = (2, "Two");
(int number, string word) pair3 = (3, "Three");
(int Item1, string Item2) pair4 = (4, "Four");
// Error: "Item" names do not match their position
(int Item2, string Item123) pair5 = (5, "Five");
(int, string) pair6 = new ValueTuple<int, string>(6, "Six");
ValueTuple<int, string> pair7 = (7, "Seven");
Console.WriteLine($"{pair2.Item1}, {pair2.Item2}, {pair2.word}");

The tuple types for pair1, pair2, and pair3 are all valid, with names for no, some or all of the tuple type elements.

The tuple type for pair4 is valid because the names Item1 and Item2 match their positions, whereas the tuple type for pair5 is disallowed, because the names Item2 and Item123 do not.

The declarations for pair6 and pair7 demonstrate that tuple types are interchangeable with constructed types of the form ValueTuple<...>, and that the new operator is allowed with the latter syntax.

The last line shows that tuple elements can be accessed by the Item name corresponding to their position, as well as by the corresponding tuple element name, if present in the type. end example

8.3.12 Nullable value types

A nullable value type can represent all values of its underlying type plus an additional null value. A nullable value type is written T?, where T is the underlying type. This syntax is shorthand for System.Nullable<T>, and the two forms can be used interchangeably.

Conversely, a non-nullable value type is any value type other than System.Nullable<T> and its shorthand T? (for any T), plus any type parameter that is constrained to be a non-nullable value type (that is, any type parameter with a value type constraint (§15.2.5)). The System.Nullable<T> type specifies the value type constraint for T, which means that the underlying type of a nullable value type can be any non-nullable value type. The underlying type of a nullable value type cannot be a nullable value type or a reference type. For example, int?? is an invalid type. Nullable reference types are covered in §8.9.

An instance of a nullable value type T? has two public read-only properties:

• A HasValue property of type bool
• A Value property of type T

An instance for which HasValue is true is said to be non-null. A non-null instance contains a known value and Value returns that value.

An instance for which HasValue is false is said to be null. A null instance has an undefined value. Attempting to read the Value of a null instance causes a System.InvalidOperationException to be thrown. The process of accessing the Value property of a nullable instance is referred to as unwrapping.

In addition to the default constructor, every nullable value type T? has a public constructor with a single parameter of type T. Given a value x of type T, a constructor invocation of the form

new T?(x)

creates a non-null instance of T? for which the Value property is x. The process of creating a non-null instance of a nullable value type for a given value is referred to as wrapping.

Implicit conversions are available from the null literal to T? (§10.2.7) and from T to T? (§10.2.6).

The nullable value type T? implements no interfaces (§18). In particular, this means it does not implement any interface that the underlying type T does.

8.3.13 Boxing and unboxing

The concept of boxing and unboxing provide a bridge between value_types and reference_types by permitting any value of a value_type to be converted to and from type object. Boxing and unboxing enables a unified view of the type system wherein a value of any type can ultimately be treated as an object.

Boxing is described in more detail in §10.2.9 and unboxing is described in §10.3.7.

8.4 Constructed types

8.4.1 General

A generic type declaration, by itself, denotes an unbound generic type that is used as a “blueprint” to form many different types, by way of applying type arguments. The type arguments are written within angle brackets (< and >) immediately following the name of the generic type. A type that includes at least one type argument is called a constructed type. A constructed type can be used in most places in the language in which a type name can appear. An unbound generic type can only be used within a typeof_expression (§12.8.18).

Constructed types can also be used in expressions as simple names (§12.8.4) or when accessing a member (§12.8.7).

When a namespace_or_type_name is evaluated, only generic types with the correct number of type parameters are considered. Thus, it is possible to use the same identifier to identify different types, as long as the types have different numbers of type parameters. This is useful when mixing generic and non-generic classes in the same program.

Example:

namespace Widgets
{
    class Queue {...}
    class Queue<TElement> {...}
}

namespace MyApplication
{
    using Widgets;

    class X
    {
        Queue q1;      // Non-generic Widgets.Queue
        Queue<int> q2; // Generic Widgets.Queue
    }
}

end example

The detailed rules for name lookup in the namespace_or_type_name productions is described in §7.8. The resolution of ambiguities in these productions is described in §6.2.5. A type_name might identify a constructed type even though it doesn’t specify type parameters directly. This can occur where a type is nested within a generic class declaration, and the instance type of the containing declaration is implicitly used for name lookup (§15.3.9.7).

Example:

class Outer<T>
{
    public class Inner {...}

    public Inner i; // Type of i is Outer<T>.Inner
}

end example

A non-enum constructed type shall not be used as an unmanaged_type (§8.8).

8.4.2 Type arguments

Each argument in a type argument list is simply a type.

type_argument_list
    : '<' type_arguments '>'
    ;

type_arguments
    : type_argument (',' type_argument)*
    ;   

type_argument
    : type
    ;

Each type argument shall satisfy any constraints on the corresponding type parameter (§15.2.5).

8.4.3 Open and closed types

All types can be classified as either open types or closed types. An open type is a type that involves type parameters. More specifically:

• A type parameter defines an open type.
• An array type is an open type if and only if its element type is an open type.
• A constructed type is an open type if and only if one or more of its type arguments is an open type. A constructed nested type is an open type if and only if one or more of its type arguments or the type arguments of its containing type(s) is an open type.

A closed type is a type that is not an open type.

At run-time, all of the code within a generic type declaration is executed in the context of a closed constructed type that was created by applying type arguments to the generic declaration. Each type parameter within the generic type is bound to a particular run-time type. The run-time processing of all statements and expressions always occurs with closed types, and open types occur only during compile-time processing.

Two closed constructed types are identity convertible (§10.2.2) if they are constructed from the same unbound generic type, and an identity conversion exists between each of their corresponding type arguments. The corresponding type arguments may themselves be closed constructed types or tuples that are identity convertible. Closed constructed types that are identity convertible share a single set of static variables. Otherwise, each closed constructed type has its own set of static variables. Since an open type does not exist at run-time, there are no static variables associated with an open type.

8.4.4 Bound and unbound types

The term unbound type refers to a non-generic type or an unbound generic type. The term bound type refers to a non-generic type or a constructed type.

An unbound type refers to the entity declared by a type declaration. An unbound generic type is not itself a type, and cannot be used as the type of a variable, argument or return value, or as a base type. The only construct in which an unbound generic type can be referenced is the typeof expression (§12.8.18).

8.4.5 Satisfying constraints

Whenever a constructed type or generic method is referenced, the supplied type arguments are checked against the type parameter constraints declared on the generic type or method (§15.2.5). For each where clause, the type argument A that corresponds to the named type parameter is checked against each constraint as follows:

• If the constraint is a class type, an interface type, or a type parameter, let C represent that constraint with the supplied type arguments substituted for any type parameters that appear in the constraint. To satisfy the constraint, it shall be the case that type A is convertible to type C by one of the following:
  • An identity conversion (§10.2.2)
  • An implicit reference conversion (§10.2.8)
  • A boxing conversion (§10.2.9), provided that type A is a non-nullable value type.
  • An implicit reference, boxing or type parameter conversion from a type parameter A to C.
• If the constraint is the reference type constraint (class), the type A shall satisfy one of the following:
  • A is an interface type, class type, delegate type, array type or the dynamic type.

  Note: System.ValueType and System.Enum are reference types that satisfy this constraint. end note

  • A is a type parameter that is known to be a reference type (§8.2).
• If the constraint is the value type constraint (struct), the type A shall satisfy one of the following:
  • A is a struct type or enum type, but not a nullable value type.

  Note: System.ValueType and System.Enum are reference types that do not satisfy this constraint. end note

  • A is a type parameter having the value type constraint (§15.2.5).
• If the constraint is the constructor constraint new(), the type A shall not be abstract and shall have a public parameterless constructor. This is satisfied if one of the following is true:
  • A is a value type, since all value types have a public default constructor (§8.3.3).
  • A is a type parameter having the constructor constraint (§15.2.5).
  • A is a type parameter having the value type constraint (§15.2.5).
  • A is a class that is not abstract and contains an explicitly declared public constructor with no parameters.
  • A is not abstract and has a default constructor (§15.11.5).

A compile-time error occurs if one or more of a type parameter’s constraints are not satisfied by the given type arguments.

Since type parameters are not inherited, constraints are never inherited either.

Example: In the following, D needs to specify the constraint on its type parameter T so that T satisfies the constraint imposed by the base class B<T>. In contrast, class E need not specify a constraint, because List<T> implements IEnumerable for any T.

class B<T> where T: IEnumerable {...}
class D<T> : B<T> where T: IEnumerable {...}
class E<T> : B<List<T>> {...}

end example

8.5 Type parameters

A type parameter is an identifier designating a value type or reference type that the parameter is bound to at run-time.

type_parameter
    : identifier
    ;

Since a type parameter can be instantiated with many different type arguments, type parameters have slightly different operations and restrictions than other types.

Note: These include:

• A type parameter cannot be used directly to declare a base class (§15.2.4.2) or interface (§18.2.4).
• The rules for member lookup on type parameters depend on the constraints, if any, applied to the type parameter. They are detailed in §12.5.
• The available conversions for a type parameter depend on the constraints, if any, applied to the type parameter. They are detailed in §10.2.12 and §10.3.8.
• The literal null cannot be converted to a type given by a type parameter, except if the type parameter is known to be a reference type (§10.2.12). However, a default expression (§12.8.21) can be used instead. In addition, a value with a type given by a type parameter can be compared with null using == and != (§12.12.7) unless the type parameter has the value type constraint.
• A new expression (§12.8.17.2) can only be used with a type parameter if the type parameter is constrained by a constructor_constraint or the value type constraint (§15.2.5).
• A type parameter cannot be used anywhere within an attribute.
• A type parameter cannot be used in a member access (§12.8.7) or type name (§7.8) to identify a static member or a nested type.
• A type parameter cannot be used as an unmanaged_type (§8.8).

end note

As a type, type parameters are purely a compile-time construct. At run-time, each type parameter is bound to a run-time type that was specified by supplying a type argument to the generic type declaration. Thus, the type of a variable declared with a type parameter will, at run-time, be a closed constructed type §8.4.3. The run-time execution of all statements and expressions involving type parameters uses the type that was supplied as the type argument for that parameter.

8.6 Expression tree types

Expression trees permit lambda expressions to be represented as data structures instead of executable code. Expression trees are values of expression tree types of the form System.Linq.Expressions.Expression<TDelegate>, where TDelegate is any delegate type. For the remainder of this specification these types will be referred to using the shorthand Expression<TDelegate>.

If a conversion exists from a lambda expression to a delegate type D, a conversion also exists to the expression tree type Expression<TDelegate>. Whereas the conversion of a lambda expression to a delegate type generates a delegate that references executable code for the lambda expression, conversion to an expression tree type creates an expression tree representation of the lambda expression. More details of this conversion are provided in §10.7.3.

Example: The following program represents a lambda expression both as executable code and as an expression tree. Because a conversion exists to Func<int,int>, a conversion also exists to Expression<Func<int,int>>:

Func<int,int> del = x => x + 1;             // Code
Expression<Func<int,int>> exp = x => x + 1; // Data

Following these assignments, the delegate del references a method that returns x + 1, and the expression tree exp references a data structure that describes the expression x => x + 1.

end example

Expression<TDelegate> provides an instance method Compile which produces a delegate of type TDelegate:

Func<int,int> del2 = exp.Compile();

Invoking this delegate causes the code represented by the expression tree to be executed. Thus, given the definitions above, del and del2 are equivalent, and the following two statements will have the same effect:

int i1 = del(1);
int i2 = del2(1);

After executing this code, i1 and i2 will both have the value 2.

The API surface provided by Expression<TDelegate> is implementation-defined beyond the requirement for a Compile method described above.

Note: While the details of the API provided for expression trees are implementation-defined, it is expected that an implementation will:

• Enable code to inspect and respond to the structure of an expression tree created as the result of a conversion from a lambda expression
• Enable expression trees to be created programatically within user code

end note

8.7 The dynamic type

The type dynamic uses dynamic binding, as described in detail in §12.3.2, as opposed to static binding which is used by all other types.

The type dynamic is considered identical to object except in the following respects:

• Operations on expressions of type dynamic can be dynamically bound (§12.3.3).
• Type inference (§12.6.3) will prefer dynamic over object if both are candidates.
• dynamic cannot be used as
  • the type in an object_creation_expression (§12.8.17.2)
  • a class_base (§15.2.4)
  • a predefined_type in a member_access (§12.8.7.1)
  • the operand of the typeof operator
  • an attribute argument
  • a constraint
  • an extension method type
  • any part of a type argument within struct_interfaces (§16.2.5) or interface_type_list (§15.2.4.1).

Because of this equivalence, the following holds:

• There is an implicit identity conversion
  • between object and dynamic
  • between constructed types that are the same when replacing dynamic with object
  • between tuple types that are the same when replacing dynamic with object
• Implicit and explicit conversions to and from object also apply to and from dynamic.
• Signatures that are the same when replacing dynamic with object are considered the same signature.
• The type dynamic is indistinguishable from the type object at run-time.
• An expression of the type dynamic is referred to as a dynamic expression.

8.8 Unmanaged types

unmanaged_type
    : value_type
    | pointer_type     // unsafe code support
    ;

An unmanaged_type is any type that isn’t a reference_type, a type_parameter, or a constructed type, and contains no instance fields whose type is not an unmanaged_type. In other words, an unmanaged_type is one of the following:

• sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double, decimal, or bool.
• Any enum_type.
• Any user-defined struct_type that is not a constructed type and contains instance fields of unmanaged_types only.
• In unsafe code (§23.2), any pointer_type (§23.3).

8.9 Reference Types and nullability

8.9.1 General

A nullable reference type is denoted by appending a ? to a valid non-nullable reference type name. There is no semantic difference between a non-nullable reference type and its corresponding nullable type. Both a nullable reference and a non-nullable reference can contain either a reference to an object or null. The presence or absence of the ? annotation declares whether an expression is intended to permit null values or not. A compiler can provide diagnostics when an expression is not used according to that intent. The null state of an expression is defined in §8.9.5. An identity conversion exists among a nullable reference type and its corresponding non-nullable reference type (§10.2.2).

There are two forms of nullability for reference types:

• nullable: A nullable-reference-type can be assigned null. Its default null state is maybe-null.
• non-nullable: A non-nullable reference should not be assigned a null value. Its default null state is not-null.

Note: The types R and R? are represented by the same underlying type, R. A variable of that underlying type can either contain a reference to an object or be the value null, which indicates “no reference.” end note

The syntactic distinction between a nullable reference type and its corresponding non-nullable reference type enables a compiler to generate diagnostics. A compiler shall allow the ? annotation as defined in §8.2.1. The diagnostics shall be limited to warnings. Neither the presence or absence of nullable annotations, nor the state of the nullable context can change the compile time or runtime behavior of a program except for changes in any diagnostic messages generated at compile time.

8.9.2 Non-nullable reference types

A non-nullable reference type is a reference type of the form T, where T is the name of the type. The default null-state of a non-nullable variable is not-null. Warnings may be generated when an expression that is maybe-null is used where a not-null value is required.

8.9.3 Nullable reference types

A reference type of the form T? (such as string?) is a nullable reference type. The default null-state of a nullable variable is maybe null. The annotation ? indicates the intent that variables of this type are nullable. The compiler can recognize these intents to issue warnings. When the nullable annotation context is disabled, using this annotation can generate a warning.

8.9.4 Nullable context

8.9.4.1 General

Every line of source code has a nullable context. The annotations and warnings flags for the nullable context control nullable annotations (§8.9.4.3) and nullable warnings (§8.9.4.4), respectively. Each flag can be enabled or disabled. The compiler can use static flow analysis to determine the null state of any reference variable. A reference variable’s null state (§8.9.5) is either not null, maybe null, or maybe default.

The nullable context may be specified within source code via nullable directives (§6.5.9) and/or via some implementation-specific mechanism external to the source code. If both approaches are used, nullable directives supersede the settings made via an external mechanism.

The default state of the nullable context is implementation defined.

Throughout this specification, all C# code that does not contain nullable directives, or about which no statement is made regarding the current nullable context state, shall be assumed to have been compiled using a nullable context where both annotations and warnings are enabled.

Note: A nullable context where both flags are disabled matches the previous standard behavior for reference types. end note

8.9.4.2 Nullable disable

When both the warning and annotations flags are disabled, the nullable context is disabled.

When the nullable context is disabled:

• No warning shall be generated when a variable of an unannotated reference type is initialized with, or assigned a value of, null.
• No warning shall be generated when a variable of a reference type that possibly has the null value.
• For any reference type T, the annotation ? in T? generates a message and the type T? is the same as T.

  Note: This message is characterized as “informational” rather than “warning,” so as not to confuse it with the state of the nullable warning setting, which is unrelated. end note

• The null-forgiving operator ! (§12.8.9) has no effect.

Example:

#nullable disable annotations
string? s1 = null;    // Informational message; ? is ignored
string s2 = null;     // OK; null initialization of a reference
s2 = null;            // OK; null assignment to a reference
char c1 = s2[1];      // OK; no warning on dereference of a possible null; throws NullReferenceException
c1 = s2![1];          // OK; ! is ignored

end example

8.9.4.3 Nullable annotations

When the warning flag is disabled and the annotations flag is enabled, the nullable context is annotations.

When the nullable context is annotations:

• For any reference type T, the annotation ? in T? indicates that T? a nullable type, whereas the unannotated T is non-nullable.
• No diagnostic warnings related to nullability are generated.
• The null-forgiving operator ! (§12.8.9) sets the null state of its operand to not null.

Example:

#nullable disable warnings
#nullable enable annotations
string? s1 = null;    // OK; ? makes s2 nullable
string s2 = null;     // OK; warnings are disabled
s2 = null;            // OK; warnings are disabled
char c1 = s2[1];      // OK; warnings are disabled; throws NullReferenceException
c1 = s2![1];          // No warnings

end example

8.9.4.4 Nullable warnings

When the warning flag is enabled and the annotations flag is disabled, the nullable context is warnings.

When the nullable context is warnings, a compiler can generate diagnostics in the following cases:

• A reference variable that has been determined to be maybe null, is dereferenced.
• A reference variable of a non-nullable type is assigned to an expression that is maybe null.
• The ? is used to note a nullable reference type.
• The null-forgiving operator ! (§12.8.9) is used to set the null state of its operand to not null.

Example:

#nullable disable annotations
#nullable enable warnings
string? s1 = null;    // OK; ? makes s2 nullable
string s2 = null;     // OK; null-state of s2 is "maybe null"
s2 = null;            // OK; null-state of s2 is "maybe null"
char c1 = s2[1];      // Warning; dereference of a possible null; throws NullReferenceException
c1 = s2![1];          // The warning is suppressed

end example

8.9.4.5 Nullable enable

When both the warning flag and the annotations flag are enabled, the nullable context is enabled.

When the nullable context is enabled:

• For any reference type T, the annotation ? in T? makes T? a nullable type, whereas the unannotated T is non-nullable.
• The compiler can use static flow analysis to determine the null state of any reference variable. When nullable warnings are enabled, a reference variable’s null state (§8.9.5) is either not null, maybe null, or maybe default and
• The null-forgiving operator ! (§12.8.9) sets the null state of its operand to not null.

8.9.5 Nullabilities and null states

A compiler is not required to perform any static analysis nor is it required to generate any diagnostic messages related to nullability.

The remainder of this subclause is conditionally normative.

A compiler that generates diagnostic messages conforms to these rules.

Every expression has one of three null states:

• maybe null: The value of the expression may evaluate to null.
• maybe default: The value of the expression may evaluate to the default value for that type.
• not null: The value of the expression isn’t null.

The default null state of an expression is determined by its type, and the state of the annotations flag when it is declared:

• The default null state of a nullable reference type is:
  • Maybe null when its declaration is in text where the annotations flag is enabled.
  • Not null when its declaration is in text where the annotations flag is disabled.
• The default null state of a non-nullable reference type is not null.

A diagnostic can be produced when a variable (§9.2.1) of a non-nullable reference type is initialized or assigned to an expression that is maybe null when that variable is declared in text where the annotation flag is enabled.

The compiler can update the null state of a variable as part of its analysis.

Note: The compiler can treat a property (§15.7) as either a variable with state, or as independent get and set accessors (§15.7.3). In other words, a compiler can choose if writing to a property changes the null state of reading the property.

End of conditionally normative text